Hundreds of shipping vessels that braved Lake Michigan's rough waters were destined for its muddy bottom. Wisconsin's Shipwreck Coast National Marine Sanctuary now preserves these lost ships.
They're known as the gales of November, and they conjure images of hurricane-force winds, towering waves, ice-cold temperatures, and bobbing ships.
Also known as the "witches" of November, they occur between mid-October and mid-December, when storm tracks collide over the Great Lakes, creating unpredictable and violent weather. They've left the bottom of the lakes littered with wrecked ships. Maritime historians estimate they are responsible for roughly half of the shipwrecks.
They've even been immortalized in Gordon Lightfoot's enduringly popular song about the 1975 sinking of the Edmund Fitzgerald, which occurred about 17 miles off Michigan's Whitefish Point in Lake Superior. That tragedy claimed the lives of all 29 crew members.
Much of the devastation occurred before weather forecasting technology, such as computer models, could predict when storms would strike. In fact, it was Wisconsin's U.S. Rep. Halbert E. Paine, a Republican, who introduced a bill in 1869 that led to the creation of the National Weather Service, aimed at improving storm forecasting on the Great Lakes.
But back in the day, these violent fall storms occurred at the end of the shipping season when companies would push to get one last voyage in before winter, said Wayne Lusardi, maritime historian with the Michigan Department of Natural Resources.
"And you can't bank on the Great Lakes being happy and peaceful this time of year," Lusardi said
So, what more is there to know about the gales of November ? What lake has the most shipwrecks? And what were some of the region's most devastating November storms?
Here's what to know about the fierce winds.
November gales caused by colliding air masses
Weather is unpredictable in the fall in the Great Lakes region. It marks a time when warm air pushes northward from the Gulf of Mexico, while cold air moves south from the Arctic.
When these air masses collide, they create drastic changes in temperature and atmospheric pressure over short distances, said Craig Hill, a researcher at the University of Minnesota-Duluth's Large Lake Observatory.
These conditions can drum up gale-force winds that in turn create large waves, Hill said. The National Weather Service classifies gale-force winds as 39 to 54 miles per hour sustained over time.
How intense winds and waves are depends on the lake's fetch, or how far the wind blows over the lake. The longer the wind travels over open water, the stronger the waves can be. The Edmund Fitzgerald sank in the southeastern part of Lake Superior, which means the wind was traveling over open water for roughly 250 miles, creating massive waves.
According to Hill, the largest wave recorded in Lake Superior was in October 2017, when the significant wave height was about 29 feet.
The significant wave height is a measurement of general wave conditions, focusing only on the most impactful waves that pose the greatest risks and can affect navigation. More precisely, its the average of the tallest third of the waves.
A significant wave height of 29 feet means there likely were waves upwards of 50 feet, Hill said. For comparison, the Edmund Fitzgerald was 39 feet tall -- with less than that actually above the water line. When it was found, the nearly 14-ton ship had snapped into into two pieces. They still sit at the bottom of Lake Superior, 530 feet deep.
Close to half of Great Lakes shipwrecks fell victim in fall storms
Experts estimate that more than 6,000 ships lie on the bottom of the Great Lakes.
Over the course of three decades, Brendon Baillod, a maritime historian from the Wisconsin Underwater Archeology Association, along with 20 other historians, compiled a database on commercial vessels lost in the lakes using verified enrollment documents, news articles and insurance articles.
Nearly half of all shipwrecks occurred in October and November, when the notorious fall storms move into the region, according to estimates from the database.
The devastation was especially staggering in the mid- to late-1800s, where there was "real carnage on the lakes, where every single November, dozens of vessels lost their crews," Baillod said.
The highest percentage of shipwrecks occurred in November, accounting for 25%, followed closely by October at nearly 24%, according to the database. The wrecks drop off significantly in December, remaining at around 6% or less before rising again in September.
Shipping goods crossed paths on Lakes Michigan, Huron
When people think of the gales of November, they often picture Lake Superior, in part because of the Fitzgerald.
Known for its massive waves and powerful storms, Lake Superior has earned a reputation for dangerous conditions. But historically, Lake Michigan's heavy shipping traffic led to the most disasters.
According to data compiled by Baillod and other Great Lakes maritime historians, Lake Michigan accounted for 26.5% of all shipwrecks, closely followed by Lake Huron at 26.1% and Lake Erie at 23.8%. Lake Ontario saw 12%, while Lake Superior had 11.5%.
Storms may not whip up the same intense winds and waves on Lake Michigan, Lusardi said, but the lake historically has been much more congested than Lake Superior. Major hubs like Chicago, Milwaukee and Green Bay were key points for transporting goods like corn, grain and oats coming out of America's heartland. Coal was coming in from the East.
This high volume of shipping created a convergence of vessels on Lakes Michigan and Huron - also centrally located - increasing the risk of accidents, particularly during storms or in poor visibility.
Lake Erie, the shallowest of the Great Lakes, also posed significant dangers due to its long fetch. Maritime expert Lusardi noted that some of the worst seas he's encountered were on Erie.
The White Hurricane of 1913
Few storms haunt the region like the White Hurricane of 1913, a storm that caused what is still considered the largest inland maritime disaster in U.S history.
From Nov. 7 to Nov. 10, 1913, two storm tracks collided over the Great Lakes, one bringing cold air and the other warm, creating a rapid drop in atmospheric pressure. Today it's what weather forecasters call a "bomb cyclone."
The storm brought blizzard conditions, sustained hurricane-force winds upwards of 90 miles per hour and towering waves topping 35 feet, catching many ship captains by surprise.
The winds were so strong they even blew out the porthole lights at the Lansing Shoal Lighthouse in northern Lake Michigan, Baillod said.
The storm's rapid onset left little time for vessels to seek shelter or prepare. With whiteout conditions and ice accumulating on ships, navigation was nearly impossible.
The devastation was staggering.
The storm's ferocity left about forty ships sunk or stranded across all of the lakes, except Lake Ontario. It's estimated that more than 275 lives were lost.
The Armistice Day Storm of 1940
Another freak weather event hit the Upper Great Lakes and Mississippi River region on Nov. 11, 1940. The day began with blue skies and temperatures in the 40s and 50s, but a cold front from Missouri quickly swept into the region, bringing a sudden drop in temperature, strong winds and blizzard conditions.
The event became known as the Armistice Day Storm, devastating much of the region both on land and water, and notably killing a dozen duck hunters who froze to death on the Mississippi River.
Lake Michigan bore the full brunt of the southwest gales, causing extensive damage and leaving many vessels grounded. Three freighters sank that day: the Anna C. Minch, William B. Davock and Novadoc. All three now lie south of Pentwater, Michigan.
The Anna C. Minch, a 380-foot steel steamer, broke in two when it was overwhelmed by the storm, taking the lives of all 24 crew members.
Maritime historians believe that the 420-foot William B. Davock, a steel steamer, had a broken rudder and jammed propeller blades, causing it to lose steering and propulsion. The Davock was swamped and capsized during the storm, killing all 32 men on board.
The crew of the Novadoc faced a much better outcome. The 253-foot steel freighter ran aground on a sandbar during the storm. The crew spent the night huddled in the captain's cabin, and were eventually rescued by a fishing boat. All crew members survived, and the Novadoc still lies in shallow water a few hundred yards off Silver Lake Sand Dunes.
The Edmund Fitzgerald was a turning point
The sinking of the Edmund Fitzgerald marked a major turning point in the shipping industry.
Newer ships are better designed, and advancements in weather forecasting, including satellite technology, have made it easier to predict and track storms, helping ships avoid dangerous conditions.
Commercial traffic on the Great Lakes has significantly decreased over the decades, Baillod said, with the number of vessels dropping significantly each decade.
With newer technology and less congestion, fewer shipwrecks lead to the kind of dramatic, unsolved mysteries, many of which are still hidden on the bottom of the lakes.
Caitlin Looby is a Report for America corps member who writes about the environment and the Great Lakes. Reach her at clooby@gannett.com or follow her on X @caitlooby.